Chapter 16 (§107-8, 110)

Conditional:

a. meaning/use: The conditional is not so much a tense as a means to hypothesize or express contrary to fact positions. It is often found in the main clause of a sentence beginning or ending with a si ('if') clause that states a condition:

Si j'avais beaucoup d'argent, j'aurais une maison sur chaque continent. (J'aurais ['I would have'] is a conditional form of the verb avoir.)

b. conjugation: The conditional combines the future stem and the imperfect endings. Examples:

	trouver	choisir
je	trouverais	choisirais
tu	trouverais	choisirais
il/elle	trouverait	choisirait
nous	trouverions	choisirions
vous	trouveriez	choisiriez
ils/elles	trouveraient	choisiraient

Irregular future (and conditional) stems: Many common verbs have irregular future/conditional stems. Here are the ones presented in the book:

INFINITIVE	FUTURE/CONDITIONAL STEM
avoir	aur-
être	ser-
aller	ir-
faire	fer-
pouvoir	pourr-
falloir [il faut]	faudr-
voir	verr-
recevoir	recevr-
mourir	mourr-
savoir	saur-
tenir	tiendr-
venir	viendr-

"Idiomatic" Uses of the Conditional

Sandberg describes two unexpected ways in which the conditional can be used/found:

(1) In hypothetical sentences, in both clauses. In these cases, there will be no si ('if') clause. In these cases, the first half of the sentence establishes the condition (or hypothesis) and the second half provides the consequence. (See p. 324 for examples. This is not extremely common, especially not in formal writing.)

(2) The 'journalistic' conditional. This is an interesting case (also) with no equivalent in English. In this usage, a journalist (print or other) cites an unconfirmed report at arms length by using the conditional which, as Sandberg suggests, can be read as a qualification of the type "supposedly." But saying "supposedly" may imply more skepticism on the part of the journalist than is implied by the French conditional which is more noncommittal (in my view):

Selon des sources proche de la Maison blanche, le Président serait déjà en train de chercher un remplaçant pour ce ministre touché par le scandale.

Chapter 7

Passive constructions

The passive voice consists of putting the object in the place of the subject. The subject is then either omitted altogether or relegated grammatically to role of agent:

Active: Paul ate the cake. Passive: The cake was eaten (by Paul).

[In the present tense: Paul eats the cake. The cake is eaten (by Paul).]

You will notice that, having made the object the subject of the verb, the verb must change form:

to be + past participle

The passive works the same in French:

Active: Paul mange le gateau. Passive: Le gateau est mangé (par Paul).

NB: The sentence: Il est allé à la banque is not passive, even though its verb has the form être + past participle. Why is it not passive?

Avoiding the passive in French: While it is never incorrect to use the passive in French, the language has devised a number of ways around its use:

On: The indefinite subject on can be used to generalize or hide the identity of the agent, while also using the active form of the verb: On a fait des erreurs. ('Errors were made.' 'Someone made mistakes.')

Reflexive verbs: Many times it is possible to make a verb reflexive in order to create a passive-type meaning: Ce mot ne se dit pas en bon français. ('This is word is not said (or used) in correct French.)

Impersonal "il" (continued)

As we saw with "Il fait…" in Chapter 6, the subject "il" can sometimes be interpreted as "it" referring neither to a person nor a single object. This does not happen with all verbs but with a select few, of which we find a short list in this chapter:

il s'agit de, il est question de … (it's about…, it's a matter of…, it's a question of…)

il arrive que… ('it happens that…'; "to happen" is an important second meaning of arriver)

il suffit que… ('it's sufficient that…")

il importe que… ('it's important that…)

il paraît que…, il semble que… ('it appears that…') [NB: as the book points out, these two verbs can often be used with personal subjects: Tu sembles inquiet. ('You seem worried.')]

Impersonal expressions of existence

In addition to il y a ('there is/ there are'), French has a few other impersonal expressions that express or enumerate the existence of things:

Il est (a literary equivalent of "il y a"): Il est des raisons que nous ne voyons pas.

Il existe (used in more scientific or philosophical contexts): Descartes pensait qu'il existait une unité de toutes les sciences.

Il reste: Il reste trois questions sans réponses. ('Three questions remain unanswered.')

Savoir ('to know')

1. meaning/use: savoir contrasts with the other "knowing" verb connaître in the type of knowledge each suggests: savoir is used to express certain, complete knowledge (je sais qu'aujourd'hui est le 23 juin); connaître suggests a familiarity or an incomplete knowledge, as in knowing a person: je connais ton ami.)

When the context suggests "new knowledge" (especially in the passé composé), savoir can mean 'learn.'

When the knowledge is a skill, savoir is used, followed by an infinitive:

Je sais danser le twist.

2. conjugation:

present: je sais, tu sais, il/elle sait; nous savons, vous savez, ils/elles savent

past participle: su

passé simple: je sus, tu sus, il/elle sut; nous sûmes, vous sûtes, ils/elles surent

future/conditional stem: saur-

Aussi and même

Be aware of three different meanings of aussi:

(1) 'also'

(2) 'thus, therefore' (when used at the beginning of the sentence and followed by inverted subject and verb)

(3) 'as…as' (e.g. aussi grand que son frère) in a comparison conveying equality between two things or ideas.

Même also has several meanings:

(1) 'same': c'est la même chose.

(2) 'even': même avec beaucoup de chance, il n'arrivera pas à l'heure.

(3) (less commonly) 'the very,' 'the essence of':

C'est le travail même qui libérera les ouvriers.

Fred Astaire? C'était l'élégance même!

C'est ce jour même qu'on a su le secret du mystère.